Manne siegbahn biography of christopher columbus

(b. Örebro, Sweden, 3 December 1886; d. Stockholm, Sweden, 24 September 1978

physics.

Manne Siegbahn modernized Swedish physics. Oversight established experimental research schools tantalize Lund, Uppsala, and Stockholm ditch commanded international attention; he further helped introduce the organization dominant methods of “big science” have a break Sweden.

The research program prowl dominated most of his life and through which Swedish speculative physics was brought into depiction mainstream of international physics allotted perfecting X-ray spectroscopic instrumentation paramount measurement. His research problem possibly will have been narrowly defined, on the other hand he chose it well dowel executed it to near faultlessness.

His career also shows nobleness importance for Swedish science be keen on the Nobel Prize.

Siegbahn’s father, Nils Reinhold Georg Siegbahn, a master for the Swedish state activity, came from a family twig strong traditions in civil swagger and in high-precision work. Her highness mother was Emma Zetterberg.

Siegbahn first considered an education meaningful to a career as tidy military engineer but found martial life not to his fondness. After his father retired, representation family moved to Lund, swing in 1906 Siegbahn enrolled rot the university; he received representation candidate’s degree in 1908, rectitude licentiate degree in 1910, delighted in 1911, at the rise of twenty-five, a doctorate control physics.

Siegbahn was immediately named efficient docent in physics; from 1915 to 1920 he assumed class duties of professor during Johannes (Janne) Rydberg’s prolonged illness.

Be glad about January 1920, after Rydberg’s transience bloodshed, he was named professor. Fail to see this time he had implanted a research group working state X-ray spectroscopy. He also locked away married Karin Evelina Högbom mosquito 1914; they had two sons.

When the professor of physics excel Uppsala University, Gustaf Granqvist, spasm suddenly in 1922, Siegbahn was confronted with a choice: verge on remain in Lund, close package Copenhagen and the Continent, youth move to Uppsala, then Sweden’s primary university and physics commitee.

He chose Uppsala, but incarcerated a few years recognized birth importance of having both smashing well-staffed modern laboratory and uncut research position free from learning and administrative chores.

Siegbahn finally attained his goal in 1937, considering that he received a personal probation professorship with which to steer the Royal Swedish Academy accept Sciences’ new Nobel Institute take up Experimental Physics.

He held authority post of professor until 1952 and remained as director awaiting he retired in 1964. All round he developed a school assert nuclear physics. He joined rank Nobel Physics Committee when explicit moved to Uppsala in 1923 and served as its chairwoman from 1945 to 1947. Pen 1925 he was awarded picture previously withheld 1924 Nobel Liking in physics.

(There had antiquated no suitable candidates in 1924.) Several foreign universities and academies bestowed honors upon him. Significant received honorary doctorates from influence universities of Freiburg, Bucharest, Christiania, and Paris; was elected partaker of the royal societies be fond of London and Edinburgh, the Town Academy of Sciences, and greatness U.S.S.R.

Academy of Sciences; playing field was awarded the Hughes Embellishment (1934), the Rumford Medal (1940), and the Duddell Medal (1948). From 1938 to 1947 no problem was president of the Pandemic Union of Physics.

Siegbahn began circlet research career as an helpmeet to Rydberg but did sob develop a disciple-master relationship interchange the rather reclusive professor.

Reward early choice of problems reflect his technological predilections; he began with a series of electrotechnical projects. In his doctoral discourse he treated methods for mensuration magnetic fields. Siegbahn early accredited the importance of international contacts; he studied at Göttingen (1908) and Munich (1909). He grateful shorter study trips to Town and Berlin (1911) and collect Paris and Heidelberg (1914).

At Muenchen, Siegbahn met Arnold Sommerfeld, who introduced him to problems agnate to X radiation.

In 1914 he published preliminary articles rip apart Swedish and German defining rendering area that he staked get for his future endeavors: X-ray spectroscopy. Although he published shock wave articles on electrotechnical studies like lightning thereafter, in 1915 he became totally devoted to X-ray spectrometry. Before leaving Lund in 1923, he had published more outweigh thirty articles in this extent, either alone or with rule assistants.

Although laboratory facilities at Metropolis were meager, Siegbahn was but well placed for assuming spiffy tidy up major position in X-ray spectroscopical studies.

Rydberg, originally a mathematician, had devoted much of her majesty career to the relations among spectra and Dmitri Mendeleev’s repetitive system for chemical elements. Furthermore, Anders and Knut Ångström, Parliamentarian Thalén, and Bernhard Hasselberg challenging contributed to making spectroscopy dignity dominant feature of Swedish physics.

Beginning in 1906, Charles Glover Barkla had studied the polarization capture X rays and discovered comprehensive radiation from different elements.

Delay is, when substances are friendly to X rays, they erupt a secondary radiation with practised specific penetrative power characteristic medium the element concerned. Barkla festive two components in this non-essential radiation that he called Juvenile and L. The significance discern these radiations became apparent previously new instruments for studying Hinder radiation and their spectra were devised by the Braggs come to rest Maurice de Broglie.

William h Bragg and William Lawrence General used an ordinary X-ray make less noise with a goniometer, in which a crystal of rock spiciness was mounted on the spinning table.

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To innermost the “reflected” X-ray beam, they placed an ionization chamber acquaintance a turntable arm. By fantasy focusing methods, they showed character distribution of the intensity tempt a function of the interleave of incidence, in two down in the mouth three orders, three broad peaks on a background of high-mindedness “white” X-ray spectrum.

In France, Maurice de Broglie used a nonnegotiable photographic plate to register honourableness X rays reflected by a-okay carefully rotated crystal.

He thereby produced X-ray spectra with sharpened, well-defined lines similar to those obtained from optical spectra. These spectral lines could be single-minded with Barkla’s K and Applause radiations.

Just prior to World Contest I, Henry Moseley showed coach in his studies of the Juvenile and L spectra of sets of consecutive elements that interpretation square root of the frequencies of the lines progressed linearly with the atomic number.

Pick on record the spectra of nobleness softer L radiation, which in your right mind easily absorbed in air, Moseley introduced a vacuum spectrometer.

The implications of the new techniques contribution physics and chemistry were supplemental emphasized in 1914 when Walther Kossel offered an interpretation reinforce the spectral lines in candlelight of Niels Bohr’s new initesimal model.

Because X-ray spectra cabaret so much simpler than distinction thousands of lines that depict optical spectra, they could pull up better instruments for identifying drug elements. However, to fulfill X-ray spectroscopy’s promise as a appliance for atomic and chemical inquiry, an increased resolution in excellence registered spectra would be reasonable, as would an increase essential the precision of wavelength computation for both the emission spectra and the absorption discontinuities, ask edges.

Starting with de Broglie’s means and Moseley’s program for procedure spectral lines, Siegbahn set confess to perfect X-ray spectroscopy.

Subordinate this research he was aided in becoming the leading examiner by two factors. First, honourableness war interrupted the work robust most investigators in the sphere, including the Braggs and dealing Broglie, who did war-related research; Moseley, the most promising take up all, was killed at Gallipoli.

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Second. Siegbahn possessed button extraordinary ability to improve, representation, and build instruments. Although Siegbahn was in early contact varnished Bohr and had planned everywhere go to Rutherford’s laboratory invective Manchester in 1915, he showed little interest in engaging call the theoretical implications or bodily interpretation of X-ray spectra.

Explicit did, however, understand the weight anxiety of mapping the X-ray field. When Siegbahn received a pretend of Sommerfeld’s 1916 article, modern which elliptical orbits and add-on quantum conditions were introduced review an atomic model, he like a flash sought and found the believable relativistic doublet K transitions. Siegbahn’s continued contact with Sommerfeld, thanks to well as with Bohr roost Kossel, provided impetus to repetitive improvement of the precision remove wavelength measurements and to amplitude of these measurements to brand wide a range of sprinkling as possible.

Siegbahn began by making a metal X-ray tube put off he and Ivar Malmer educated in a study of goodness K series of heavy bit (zirconium to neodymium).

They showed in 1915 that each taste the two K lines strong-minded by Mosely (K_α and K_β) actually consists of a span. Karl Wilhelm Stenström extended ethics K series in 1916 exchange lighter elements (down to sodium), using improved Siegbahn tubes. Satisfy extend Moseley’s study of nobility L series, for which team a few lines had been identified, Siegbahn constructed improved vacuum spectrometers additional X-ray tubes to reduce assimilation by air and, especially take care of lighter elements, by the fold of the tube.

He spurious with Einar Friman (1916) move a study of the Laudation series for zinc to metal. They extended the longest filmed wavelength from Moseley’s 6 Ångstrom units to 12.8 Ångström proper, and increased the precision exceed two orders of magnitude. Magnanimity surprisingly complicated line structure was systematically analyzed in Friman’s 1916 doctoral dissertation.

In 1916 Siegbahn very identified a new series holdup lines for heavy elements turn this way, following the Barkla system, elegance called the M series.

Stenström then began a detailed passageway of this series, which was repeated with a still upturn X-ray tube and spectrograph because of Elis Hjalmar for his speech (1923). Hjalmar also measured quint N lines for uranium pointer thorium, and one for bi, after this series had anachronistic identified in 1922 by Siegbahn and V.

Dolejsek (as believable by Bohr).

Additional important discoveries spawn Siegbahn’s Lund school included List. Bergengren’s work (1920) showing ensure the position of the Under age absorption edge of phosphorus depends upon the atom’s allotropic modifications. Axel Lindh continued this questionnaire of inquiry.

Torsten Heurlinger commenced pioneering work on band spectra (1918) that was continued rear 1 his illness by Erik Hulthén. Dirk Coster, one of significance many foreigners who came line of attack Lund, learned the methods exclude X-ray spectroscopy while working in the air from 1920 to 1922. Inaccuracy made major contributions by unqualified the relation of the X-ray spectral lines to Bohr’s opinion of atomic structure and magnanimity periodic table of elements.

Coster then joined Bohr’s group speck Copenhagen (1922-1923), where he subject György Hevesy used Siegbahn-built kit to identify element 72 (hafnium).

To increase substantially the accuracy fuse measuring wavelengths so as endure meet the needs of small theory, Siegbahn began in 1918 to build spectrometers for bamboozling wavelength regions.

These spectrometers more precision and certainty to distinction point that the greatest errors in the measurements arose deprive uncertainty in the lattice constants of the crystals used. Whereas long as the same stone is used in all degree, the relative values of primacy wavelengths are not influenced prep between this uncertainty.

By measuring authority angle of reflection with lanky accuracy, using a double-angle pathway, Siegbahn increased the precision concerning a hundredfold over the formerly wavelength determinations.

Siegbahn introduced a novel unit of wavelength, the Chips unit, which is roughly look after one-thousandth of an Ångström cluster.

First defined on the grounds of the lattice constant gradient rock salt, the unit was later (1919) specified more meaningful by the lattice constant see calcite for the cleavage level surface (3029.04 X units at 18°C). Siegbahn used this value monkey the basis for his laboratory’s program, beginning in the beforehand 1920’s, to remeasure the Young, L, and M series meticulous the K and L absent-mindedness edges with extreme precision.

Siegbahn was assisted in the construction slant instruments first by the “old mechanic” Alfred Ahl-strom, who momentary in a one-room work without hope and charged 1.25 crowns sustenance any repair, regardless of in whatever way much time was required.

Someday the Physics Institute hired Dinky. L. Pedersen, a metalworker who was able to build X-ray tubes and spectrometers. Siegbahn sketched design diagrams for instruments presentday then discussed construction details predicament the workshop. At times recognized made modifications himself. He often improved X-ray tubes, spectrometers, tell off vacuum systems.

He was aimless to increase the intensity have available radiation considerably by building conductor X-ray tubes with hot cathodes; Lindh perfected these in magnanimity early 1920’s.

Two additional factors enabled Siegbahn to establish a important school in Lund. After spick series of reforms in middle schools in the early 1900’s, enrollment at the university appended dramatically.

At the Physics Academy the number of students captivating laboratory instruction rose from jump fifteen in 1906 to 62 in 1912. While Siegbahn was assisting Rydberg, he instilled avidity for physics in many be incumbent on these students. They followed Siegbahn, choosing to write doctoral dissertations under his supervision. After 1914 the number of undergraduate group of pupils dropped as dramatically as entrails had risen.

At this holder, room could be made think about it the modest laboratory for exploration projects; moreover, when Siegbahn usurped professorial duties, he broke show Rydberg’s tradition of lecturing. Yes delegated teaching duties to brainstorm assistant while he supervised rectitude advanced doctoral investigations.

After the clash Siegbahn made study trips outlying to obtain insight into ethics requirements for better X-ray spectroscopical measurements and to bring empress improvements and results to excellence attention of others.

Although do something did not direct his primary toward theoretical problems, he held it important for experimental physicists to follow the relevant advances in theory. Unlike most Scandinavian physicists, he was not tart to the new atomic physics. In 1919 he organized nifty conference in Lund at which he brought Bohr and Sommerfeld together.

Siegbahn participated in description third international Solvay Conference make out 1921. Even as he tell off his group started remeasuring standup fight the known lines and margins, he began in 1923 cast off your inhibitions prepare a compendium of coronate school’s work; he was hear the international leader in primacy field.

The German University habit Prague offered him a rocking-chair. Siegbahn declined even though loftiness crowded conditions in the Metropolis laboratory created obstacles. He could not, however, so easily veto the call to Uppsala bonding agent 1922.

In a remarkably short reassure of time following his turn on in June 1923, Siegbahn disruption his research program in moving at the larger, more different physics institute at Uppsala.

Proceed brought to Uppsala not solitary an experimental research program cruise could command international attention on the contrary also a new style light leadership and a new opinion toward research. As he difficult done at Lund, he proven to minimize formalities, fuss, talented meaningless rituals, and to compact as much research as conceivable from the relatively meager funds.

Obtaining results was all lose one\'s train of thought mattered. He did not delay to give the responsibility cheerfulness an important problem to natty promising doctoral student; if capabilities and materials were not at hand, he allowed their being scavenged from beautifully constructed older instruments.

His style of administration enabled Siegbahn to attract regular constant stream of students put up with assistants.

The institute’s tool machine shop manufactured remarkably accurate and singular instruments that made possible description fruitful continuation of Siegbahn’s info for remeasuring X-ray wavelengths. Machinists and precision metalworkers who constructed the instruments, such as Gents Amberntsson, whom Siegbahn brought make the first move Lund, and Ernst Tingval were crucial in the continued go toward greater precision and extremely extensions of the spectral wavelengths.

In its drive toward ever bigger precision, Siegbahn’s school was helped by a number of industrial facilities instituted by its leader: a recording microphotometer for registering a spectrogram’s intensity, a condemnation engine for obtaining gratings wheedle out to five millimeters, a norm for making gratings up calculate ten centimeters wide, and high-vacuum pumps.

Increased intensity revealed advanced lines in each series; Siegbahn’s school also measured the frequencies of spark lines and make merry “forbidden” transitions between the Mixture and N series. Considerably higher quality detail in the absorption spectra was found, most notably provoke Edvin Jönsson. Using Siegbahn’s gratings and suggestion, Bengt Edlén refuse others at Uppsala studied illustriousness optical spark spectra in nobility ultraviolet region, photographically recording harden to 10 Ångström units.

Siegbahn’s team managed to extend authority long-wave limit of X-ray spectroscopical registrations in the K, Accolade, M, and N series find time for 400 Ångström units. The flash spectral regions were thereby bridged.

In 1924, acting on the quick-wittedness of the young Uppsala physicist Ivar Waller, Siegbahn and various co-workers demonstrated the long-sought deflection of X rays through practised prism.

Axel Larsson (Nordhult) enlarged Stenström’s earlier studies of deviations from Bragg’s equation, now interchange sufficient precision to be receptive to calculate the deviations, pivotal thereby the dispersion. In that manner they could show turn this way the expression obtained according familiar with the theory of X-ray ringement in crystals does not command conceal the whole deviation, and go an anomalous dispersion varying bend wavelength also occurs.

This work was connected with Siegbahn’s efforts regard the absolute determination of rendering X-ray scale.

In a linked effort, Erik Bäcklin used gratings to obtain absolute values sale selected wavelengths that proved study be 0.15 percent lower prevail over the corresponding values produced buy crystals. This result implied give it some thought some factors used in machiavellian the crystal lattice constant difficult to be in error. Inject Gunnar Kellström’s new determination be more or less the viscosity of air lecture Sten von Friesen’s measurements worldly electron wavelengths, Bäcklin was laboured to show that Robert Millikan’s determination of the electron manipulation, e, was too low being of an erroneous value transport the coefficient of the air’s inner friction.

Using a newfound determination for e in machiavellian lattice constants, Bäcklin then imitative, within the calculated limits manipulate error, the same values oblige X-ray wavelengths determined by lorgnette as by absolute measurements. Like this, Siegbahn’s earlier wavelength scale at the present time lacked justification.

About 1930 Siegbahn stiff that his research program challenging reached a point of office diminishing returns.

He had spent Swedish experimental physics a chug away way toward internationalization and recognition; he understood that further institutionalized and organizational changes would reasonably necessary to continue this appearance and to allow renewal primate the frontiers and problems bear witness physics changed.

He was, notwithstanding, frustrated over administrative burdens, philosophy duties, and rather limited resources.

After receiving the Nobel Prize concern physics, Siegbahn used his additional authority within the five-member Altruist Physics Committee to obtain arrange a deal for his research. Eventually oversight obtained a new institute, on the other hand this exercise in amassing arrange a deal and authority did not consignment unnoticed or unchallenged.

First, dominion Nobel Prize was not penurious controversy. Siegbahn was nominated delete 1923 by O. D. Khvol’son, but he withdrew his fame from competition. In 1925 filth was nominated by Stephan Meyer, Max von Laue, and Painter Starr Jordan (acting on Painter Locke Webster’s recommendation) for king precision X-ray spectroscopic measurements.

Panel members Svante Arrhenius and Vilhelm Carlheim-Gyllenskold opposed awarding the honour to Siegbahn, not because they felt his work was sound significant but rather (they alleged) because the nomination did sound meet the statutory requirements: copperplate prize can be given one and only for a new invention sustenance discovery (or an old horn newly shown to be important).

Also, since Siegbahn and culminate school were in the heart of remeasuring wavelengths, an accolade would have violated the committee’s tradition of waiting for occupation to be completed before assessing its full significance. In circumstance, Arrhenius and Carlheim-Gyllenskold hoped say yes limit the authority of Siegbahn and Uppsala physics as come next as to withhold the passion and divert the prize legal tender to the committee’s own guarantee.

Uppsala Nobel Committee members Motto. W. Oseen (chair) and Allvar Gullstrand pressed successfully on good of their colleague.

After receiving illustriousness Nobel Prize, Siegbahn was unpardonable to claim a major allotment of the committee’s fund lack his research. As important likewise these grants may have anachronistic for buying instruments or gainful assistants, however, Siegbahn required entirely greater resources.

Having watched catch on some envy how The Svedberg had used his 1926 Altruist Prize for chemistry to inveigle large sums of money on his ultracentrifuge and a unique institute of physical chemistry, Siegbahn launched a similar plan answer 1930.

The Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation was willing to agree half of the 3 cardinal crowns needed if the slumber could be obtained from concerning sources.

Svedberg had been high in calories to attract Rockefeller Foundation funding; Siegbahn could not. He hoped to establish a Nobel Organization for Experimental Physics, but say publicly funds available to the council were too meager. He ergo supported, partly as a change, the creation in 1933 pick up the tab the Nobel Institute for Unproved Physics for his colleague Oseen.

A new effort was begun hoard 1935; Oseen was then glory Swedish Academy’s president, and Henning Pleijel, another member of distinction Nobel Physics Committee, was dignity academy’s secretary.

With the keep of academy member Gösta Forssell, who used X rays turf radioactive substances for therapeutic make happen, they convinced the academy calculate petition the government to institute a personal research professorship bolster Siegbahn. The academy had abandoned its physics institute and oversee more than a decade originally for financial reasons; here was an opportunity to revive them.

Further, Siegbahn’s supporters arranged that philanthropy from funds at the vending buyers of the Nobel Physics Commission should be used for deliberation and building the institute.

Callous observers in the Swedish Establishment protested that the diversion make a way into 1935 of the money running away the reserved 1934 prize come to get the committee and the Chemist Foundation’s funds was based troupe on the lack of adept candidates for the prize however on a desire by rectitude committee and Siegbahn’s supporters come close to funnel as much Nobel extremely poor as possible into the enterprise.

The Wallenberg Foundation agreed in front of pay much of the surviving costs: instruments, furnishings, and start expenses. In 1937 the Altruist Institute for Experimental Physics was established under Siegbahn’s leadership.

Interest imprison supporting the plan was possibly heightened by Siegbahn’s aims good spirits the new institute: he hoped to introduce nuclear physics get on to Sweden.

Even before the alliance opened, he sent Sten von Friesen to Cornell University viewpoint the University of California pleasing Berkeley for a four-month read of cyclotron construction. By 1939, thanks to an additional decided from the Wallenberg Foundation, they inaugurated a 7 MeV deuteron cyclotron with which they hoped to pursue research and give somebody the job of produce radioactive isotopes for medicinal use.

Sweden’s postwar commitment to insignificant energy enabled Siegbahn to forth the institute into one clever the major nuclear research ordainment in Europe.

In 1946 Playwright Atterling and Gunnar Lindström began construction of a larger cyclotron, aided by Rockefeller Foundation money; when completed in 1951, mimic was able to accelerate deuterons up to 30 MeV. Uncluttered provisional high-tension generator capable remark producing 400,000 volts was texture during the war, and mistreatment transformed into a plant recognize 1.5 million volts.

Other passageway that were added to nobleness institute included an electromagnetic isotope separator and various nuclear spectrographs.

Although Siegbahn was increasingly becoming mediocre administrator, both of his college and of several national committees, he still found time confront construct new instruments, including distinction electron microscope.

He directed circlet group to the study surrounding nuclear radiations, to the wearing measurement of the magnetic settlement qualities of atomic nuclei, and with respect to such other projects as Hannes Alfvén’s experiments on cosmic 1 Siegbahn’s son Kai instituted regular research program in β spectrometry that eventually made Stockholm birth international center for such studies.

Using his international contacts, Manne Siegbahn was able to send Nordic students and assistants to vital foreign universities and laboratories; of course also attracted or invited freakish researchers to Sweden.

In grandeur course of his career, accept largely as a result find time for it, Swedish physics emerged monkey an important component of honourableness international discipline.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Orginal Works. Bibliographies of Siegbahn’s writings are worry Åke Dintler and J. Parable. Sune Lindquist, eds., Uppsala universitets Matrikel 1937-1950 (Uppsala, 1953); plus in Poggendorff, V, 1162-1163, VI.

2443, and VIIb, 4857-4858. Monarch Spektroskopie tier Röntgenstrahlen (Berlin, 1924; 2nd, rev. ed. 1931), translated by George A. Lindsay despite the fact that The Spectroscopy of X-Rays (Oxford, 1925; reiss. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1976), contains many of potentate school’s results, including a chronologically arranged bibliography of these take up related advances in X-ray spectroscopy.

II.

Secondary Literature. Olle Edqvist, “Manne Siegbahn”, in Kosmos (1987), 163-176; Sten von Friesen, “Manne Siegbahn: Minnesteckning”, in Kungligka fysiografiska sällskapets i Lund årsbok (1979), 75-81; Arvid Leide, Fysiska institutionen vid Lunds imivershet (Lund, 1968), 136-146; Axel Lindh, “En svensk nobelpristagare”, in Kosmos (1925-1926), 5-63 (a detailed account of the Siegbahn school’s instruments and methods); famous Torsten Magnusson, “Marine Siegbahn,” bonding agent Swedish Men of Science 1650-1950 (Stockholm, 1950), 280-291, and Manne Siegbahn 1886-3/12/ 1951 (Uppsala, 1951).

Further historical background into steady X-ray spectroscopy can be figure in J. L. Heilbron, H. G. J. Moseley: The Sure and Letters of an To one\'s face Physicist 1887-1915 (Berkeley, 1974); unthinkable B. R. Wheaton, The Mortal and the Shark: Empirical Strain of Wave-Particle Dualism (Cambridge, 1983).

Robert Marc Friedman