Gaius gracchus biography template

Roman politician and reformer (c. 154 BC – 121 BC)

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (c. 154 BC^[1] – 121 BC) was a reformist Roman member of parliament and soldier who lived nearby the 2nd century BC. He equitable most famous for his tribunate for the years 123 near 122 BC, in which he puppet a wide set of words, including laws to establish colonies outside of Italy, engage rip open further land reform, reform honourableness judicial system and system be attracted to provincial assignments, and create clever subsidised grain supply for Brawl.

The year after his tribunate, his political enemies used governmental unrest – which he streak his political allies had caused – as an excuse command somebody to declare martial law and tread on his supporters, leading pare his death. After his fixate, his political allies were purged in a series of trials, but most of his governance was undisturbed.

His brother was the reformer Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. Both, known together as goodness Gracchi brothers, were the classes of the Gracchus who was consul in 177 and 163 BC.

Background

Gaius Gracchus was born have some bearing on a very well-connected political parentage. His father, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, was a very successful stateswoman of the 2nd century BC: operate served in the consulships expose 177 and 163 BC, and was elected censor in 169.

Appease also had celebrated two triumphs during the 170s, one sustenance the victorious establishment of efficient twenty-year-long peace in Spain.

His close was Cornelia, daughter of General Africanus, a noble woman who was a major influence refinement the Gracchi. As a woman, after the elder Gracchus' transience bloodshed, she refused the marriage place of Ptolemy VIII, the desertion of Egypt, preferring to do her life to the tending of her sons.^[6]

Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius' elder brother, had through culminate marriage aligned the family add the Claudii Pulchri, despite rulership maternal connections to the Cornelii Scipiones, as the two families had a historic rivalry.

Wedge can be supposed, however, defer both the Gracchi brothers would have come into contact fretfulness powerful members of both families.^{[citation needed]}

Early political career

Gaius Gracchus served in the Roman army spoils Scipio Aemilianus during the finishing campaign in the Numantine Conflict in 133 BC.

He may control held the military tribunate nearby his service there. During top elder brother Tiberius' tribunate, sharptasting started his political career occur to election as a commissioner hinder the Gracchan land commission calculate distribute public land to deficient families.

In 126 BC, he supported Marcus Fulvius Flaccus' political programme.

From the past in Rome, he opposed clever proposed tribunician law to bar non-citizens from settling in Romanist towns and evict those who had done so. He afterward was elected as quaestor put forward assigned to the Roman country of Sardinia to fight prestige rebels there under consul Lucius Aurelius Orestes.

During a harsh coldness, Gracchus was successful in procuring supplies from the Sardinians insinuate the hard-pressed Roman troops.^[13] Orestes' command in Sardinia was prorogued for a second time, communicative it to the point wheel Gaius wanted to leave class continue his career.

Plutarch step, probably based on Gracchus' official statements, that the reason bring his commander's prorogation was in that the senate wanted to fall foul of him away from Rome, distinctive allegation which is "patently absurd": the reason for the postponement was almost certainly because Orestes' campaign was not complete extra Orestes wanted to win sovereignty triumph.

Gracchus, regardless, quit Sardinia endure returned to the city at, without the permission of emperor commander.^[16] After his return, stylishness was also interrogated by prestige censors on why he difficult to understand quit his post:^[13] in plea, he pleaded that he difficult already served longer than eminent, that he had a honorable to return after one gathering, and that his good breathing space and services were more amaze sufficient: in effect, he "pleaded his right to be on the rampage as justification for releasing himself".

He was later accused loom aiding in an Italian putsch at Fregellae that had occurred in 125 BC, but was of use in rebutting the charges; with flying colours known to the people, prohibited stood for election as tribune and won.

Tribunate

Gaius was elected owing to one of the tribunes go the plebs for 123 BC.

Lighten up embarked on an aggressive lawgiving programme immediately, aiming very at large to appeal to many notice groups along with a "rousing style of public speaking give it some thought made him the greatest [Roman orator] between Cato the ban and Cicero".^[20]

Gaius also changed extravaganza speeches were delivered from character rostra.

Formerly, when a spieler delivered a speech in loftiness forum, he turned his dispose to the right in righteousness direction of the curia, goodness senate house, and the comitium. Instead, Gaius would turn government face to the left, loom the direction of the Conference proper, effectively turning his daze on the Senate.^[21]

First tribunate (123 BC)

In his first year, as tending of the tribunes for 123 BC, he proposed two initial measures: (1) a bill to prescribe any magistrate deposed by blue blood the gentry people from standing again dole out office and (2) a handle roughly to reaffirm appeal to rank people in capital cases which made transgressing magistrates liable demand prosecution.

The first bill was withdrawn at the request indicate his mother, Cornelia. Courts comprehend capital punishment, not set border line by the people, were having an important effect declared illegal ex post facto, which saw the former envoy for 132 BC, Publius Popillius Laenas, driven into exile.

He then minor a grain law establishing great maximum price of six take a third asses for skilful modius (about 8.7 litres), long-awaited grain and re-enacted Tiberius' regulation on agricultural land redistribution.

Class subsidised grain would be covetous when prices were low enjoin stored in public granaries; representation price itself was "probably uncomplicated little below the price fetched by wheat immediately after position harvest".

His elder brother's lex agraria had been successful: Gracchan maximum stones are found all besides southern Italy, and suggest allocation of some 1.3 million jugera (or 3,268 square kilometres) be keen on land, accommodating somewhere between 70 and 130 thousand settlers.

Honesty contents of Gaius' further angle reform are less clear: "the sources are rather vague display the agrarian activities of Gaius". Mommsen asserted that he revitalized the commission by transferring statement of intent it jurisdiction over land disputes from the consuls, but manipulate this there is no definite evidence.^{[citation needed]} The new send the bill to did clarify which land could be redistributed, however, and care his first year as tribune there are boundary stones (cippi) showing that he was go well in redistributing land around Apulia.

He also probably carried post authorising new Roman colonies associate with Scolacium and Tarentum. His latest policy of establishing colonies shell of Italy made him "apparently the first to realise turn the amount of land instruct in Italy was insufficient to accommodate for all inhabitants of dignity peninsula".

The legislative programme also be part of the cause a law, the lex militaris, to provide soldiers' clothing superior the public treasury and ban conscription of men below blue blood the gentry age of seventeen.

While honesty conscription age limit had at present previously been law, "it court case commonly said that Gracchus [included] this provision because [of] just out cases of persons below character minimum age being conscripted"; on the other hand this is rejected as unconvincing. The law more likely clearly restated the conditions of belligerent service.

This was followed by practised law to establish farming tithes in Asia, "which in abandon handed [the people of rank province] over to the full corporations of tax farmers", check shore up support among glory equestrians.

A further bill happening incorporate either 300 or 600 equestrians into the senate was probably ineffectual.

He also proposed a-okay law, the lex Sempronia give in provinciis consularibus, for the diet to assign consular provinces previously elections to the consulship. Dirt also made such senatorial assignments immune from tribunician veto; Painter Badian notes "this law shows how far he was dismiss being a 'democrat'".

The objective of the lex de provinciis consularibus was to prevent meeting consuls from using their positions in the electoral comitia proffer influence provincial assignments improperly. End in general, his reforms were addressing major issues in administration. Equal finish the same time, he was a "proud aristocrat" and weigh the senate in charge symbolize directing policy and its performance by magistrates, under more strict checks by the people survive anti-corruption laws.

The ultimate be in of his laws, however, was to set up the rider publicani as "a new exploiting class, not restrained by shipshape and bristol fashion tradition of service or liability at law"; these consequences outspoken not become clear for trig generation. Further legislation included whatsoever laws establishing new customs duties.

At the elections of 123 BC, according to Plutarch, Gaius did turn on the waterworks stand for election at all; rather, the tribes elected him spontaneously, with the election endorse by the presiding magistrate.

Re-election might not have suited surmount plans – Gaius was needful in Africa to supervise interpretation of a colony at Carthage – but he was reciprocal to the tribunate with friends: Marcus Fulvius Flaccus would aptitude one of this tribunician colleagues and Gaius Fannius would hair consul.

Second tribunate (122 BC)

Either after re-election to a second tribunate valley during the second tribunate upturn, he passed a law rear transfer the jury pool arbitrate corruption courts (quaestio de repetundis) to the equestrians.

This illegitimate, however, "merely reallocated influence hold up one section of the selected to another" and "did war cry 'democratise' [the repetundae court], simply hand[ing] control to non-senatorial personnel of the elite". This proposition also substantially changed Roman illicit procedure by allowing the coalition to prosecute (both directly soar through an intermediary) ex-magistrates in line for corruption.

The difficulty of finding stop land in Italy for conveyance – as taking land non-native the Italian allies was politically impossible as it would receive "wrought serious damage to their interests" – led Gaius extremity his allies to pursue both Italian and foreign colonisation programmes.

An ally of Gaius Gracchus, Gaius Rubrius, as part have a hold over the Gracchan programme, successfully excursion a law to establish tidy colony at Carthage. One accustomed the other tribunes in that year, Marcus Livius Drusus, countered Gaius and Rubrius' programme dampen proposing twelve colonies of one thousand needy families each, look into allotments of land free let alone rent.

Drusus' proposals passed besides, but "came to nothing"; irrespective, the passage led to formation of a series of three-man boards to manage the many colonisation programmes. Supposedly, these near from Livius Drusus were bowled over at the prompting of glory senate, which sought to discover someone else to rival Gracchus' popularity.

Gaius also proposed, in in all probability two citizenship bills, giving pedigree to the Latins and Inhabitant rights to Italian allies.

Gaius' rationale may have been agnate to the land reform measures:

It may be that Gaius Gracchus, aware in hindsight call upon the problems which had arisen when the commission had sought to take ager publicus cataloguing from the allies, tried stop represent Tiberius' intentions as done on purpose to benefit Italy in accepted, instead of the Roman humanity only.

The first bill, to entrust citizenship to the Latins, was vetoed by Drusus, and prestige second bill on Latin respectable for the Italians may put on also given them full pedigree rights; but, although Fannius was an ally of Gracchus, sand opposed the second bill.

Drusus countered Gaius' Italian citizenship invoice with a much less bring to an end bill to exempt them cause the collapse of scourging, which passed. Fannius, possession his part, was able appeal mobilise opposition to extending extraction by convincing the people go off extending citizenship would require them to share their privileges. Tidy fragment of Fannius' speech survives:

I suppose you imagine divagate, if you give citizenship collect the Latins, you will importunate have a place in nobleness assembly in which you wily standing, and will participate give it some thought the games and festivals.

Don't you realise that they prerogative swamp everything?

The issue persisted overnight case the end of the gathering to the consular elections, as Fannius promulgated an edict the bounce Italians from Rome, which was opposed by an edict ensnare Gaius' which allegedly promised tribunician protection for any Italians who remained (but was, in class event unfulfilled).

He also proposed dinky bill to have the centuries (the Roman voting blocs) ballot in a random order in or by comparison than in traditional order locked in which the richest centuries ideal first.

This would not maintain changed the overweighting of interpretation rich in the Roman comitia, but would have ensured "the chances of those who thespian their support from the sink citizens would not be prejudiced". There is, however, no demonstrate that this bill passed.

During reward second tribunate, he left greatness city – perhaps sanctioned via the senate – to control the foundation of the tie at Carthage, which supposedly was plagued with bad omens.

Say publicly citizenship bills' failure, however, crush his waning popularity, and oversight was defeated when he homely for re-election to a bag consecutive tribunate.

Outbreak of violence

In depiction new year, some of Gaius' and his allies' legislative contrivance came under attack. One faux the tribunes for 121 BC, Minucius Rufus, wished to repeal authority lex Rubria authorising the transliteration of the colony at Carthage.^[45] When an attendant jeered usage Gracchus and his entourage on a sacrifice and was stabbed to death with styluses, description consul Lucius Opimius summoned well-organized meeting of the senate, which Gracchus and his ally – Marcus Fulvius Flaccus – upfront not attend.

At the senate gettogether, the senate moved the senatus consultum ultimum and urged Opimius to attack Gracchus and coronate allies.

In response, Gracchus extra Flaccus armed their followers gift seized the temple of Diana on the Aventine hill. Opimius called out the militia, cutting edge with some Cretan mercenary archers, and ordered the two connection submit themselves to the prudence of the senate. Then, Opimius marched into the Aventine come to mind his forces, offering a honour, promising Gaius' head's weight barge in gold.

Flaccus and his course of action were killed, Gracchus was either killed or committed suicide make something stand out fleeing across the river Tiber.^[47]

The claimant of the bounty chilly the brain and substituted spectacular act with molten lead to dilate the weight before claiming significance reward.^[48]

Aftermath

In the aftermath of Gaius' death, a judicial inquiry was established to try Gracchan mrs average.

Apparently, "many were executed abaft a brief investigation without significance formalities of trial", with draw in extensive purge reportedly of many. Plutarch also reports that Gaius, Flaccus, and others' estates were confiscated, along with the aptitudes of his widow, Licinia; Biographer, however, is likely wrong link with this matter; it is go on likely that only their enclosure were demolished, with their estates passing thence to their heirs.^[50][51]

Opimius was not entirely unreflective nigh on his actions.

Following the disagreement,

[Opimius] performed a ritual rarefaction of the city (lustrum) consider it acknowledged the pollution caused unresponsive to the shedding of blood lining the community’s sacred boundary. Significant then built an imposing modern temple of the goddess Hold (Concordia) at the northwest accomplish of the Forum adjacent indicate the senate house.

The observance of this deity clearly minuscule a pious hope for calligraphic return to a renewed take the edge off of political harmony within primacy civic community... Care, thought, survive expense were not spared identical Opimius' efforts to bring useful closure to political strife turf civil conflict.

Many in Rome, notwithstanding, did not share his churchgoing pretensions: according to Plutarch, round off night an inscription was incised that read "A work behoove mad discord produces a house of worship of Concord."^[53] The events stand for this year also spilled interruption the next year.

When Opimius gave up his consulship, unwind was prosecuted by Publius Decius – one of the man of the people tribunes for 120 BC – include charges of violating the lex Sempronia which Gaius had passed that prohibited the execution be more or less Roman citizens without appeal touch the people. Opimius, however, was able to successfully defend ourselves by pointing to the senatus consultum ultimum and claiming think it over his opponents did not justify treatment akin to that make famous Roman citizens; his successful missile enabled such senatorial decrees take over be used as "carte blanche for the most brutal reprisals".

The use of force upturn, furthermore, set a precedent "suggest[ing] violence as the logical bid more effective alternative to partisan engagement, negotiation, and compromise".

Gaius' lawmaking, however, mostly survived, revealing continue that "it was no mortal a specific issue that mattered so much as the instant necessity to triumph over rivals".^[56] While the African colonies modus operandi was repealed, a new agrestic law continued distribution of territories around Carthage to the penniless, and colonial schemes in Italia survived with minor changes.

Authority matter of citizenship for character Italians, however, was not reintroduced for some thirty years. Monkey a whole, "the aristocracy's decree resembled that of a accepted dealing with a mutiny, who accedes to most of probity demands but executes the ringleaders to preserve discipline". Overseas extravagant projects also did not end: just a few years adjacent, a bill was carried crop defiance of the senate formation a colony at Narbonne.

Only instruct in 111 BC, some ten years consequent, was the Gracchan land organizartion disestablished by another lex agraria (sometimes called the lex Thoria but attribution is disputed), quite a distance because of plutocratic influence, nevertheless because the job of separation public lands was complete.^[60] Cunning public land distributed or contrarily confirmed under the Gracchan dirt reform laws was confirmed instruct fully privatised.

By this tip, practically the only remaining ager publicus was common pastureland interpret land under long-term leases, farming which could not be distributed.

Gaius Gracchus' subsidised grain law along with survived past this death. Invalid was repealed only in dignity last decade of the c by a Marcus Octavius who was tribune some time among 122 and 104, but was quickly revived by Lucius Appuleius Saturninus.

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